MODERN ERA: 1750 - 1914

1
MODERN ERA1750 - 1914

• CHANGES IN THE NATURE AND FUNCTIONS OF STATE
  STRUCTURES

2
REVOLUTIONARY IDEAS

• Revolution
• A popular idea, means to an end
• A way to restructure society
• Popular sovereignty
• Relocating sovereignty in the people
• Traditional monarchs
• Claimed a "divine right" to rule, unquestionable
• Constitutional Limitations
• Aristocracy, Enlightenment challenged king
• Glorious Revolution of 1688
• Made the monarch responsible to the people
• John Locke's theory of contractual government
• Authority comes from the consent of the governed
• Freedom and equality
• Demands for freedom of worship
• Freedom of expression, assembly
• Demands for political and legal equality
• Condemned legal, social privileges of aristocrats
  
• Equality not extended to all

3
TYPES OF REVOLUTIONS

• Aristocratic Revolution
• Aristocracy fights to preserve privileges
• Often against royal absolutism
• Rarely for other classes rights
• Usually ends with constitution, limits on
  monarchy
• Bourgeois (liberal) Revolution
• Middle class seeks rights equal to nobility
• Extension of franchise, ability to hold office
• Issues of taxation often involved
• Reforms limited and rarely radical, franchise
  limited
• American (1776), French (1789), Meiji Restoration
  (1867)
• Latin American Revolutions (1820s)
• Mass revolutions
• Most of society effected and involved
• Often goals are quite radical and methods often
  quite violent
• Nationalist Revolutions
• China (1911)
• Haitian Revolution (1793)
• Socialist Revolutions

4
REFORM

• Often system allowed change without radical
  means, violence
• Reform was a theme of 1750 1914
• Reform movements
• Increased, responsive democratic representation,
  institutions
• Expansion of male suffrage was the key issue
• One of the hallmarks of a democratic society
• Very successful in US, Western Europe, British
  settler colonies, Japan
• Less so in Latin America, Russia, Eastern Europe,
  Africa, Asia
• Abolition of slavery, serfdom
• Abolition movement was very successful
• Other forms of coercive labor replaced them
• Racial, social equality did not follow
• Women Rights
• One goal was full female franchise
• Not achieved until after 1914 but progress

5
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION

• Tension between Britain, American colonies
• Legacy of Seven Years' War
• British debt, North American tax burden
• Colonists increasingly independent minded
• Colonial protest
• Over taxes, trade policies, Parliamentary rule
• Colonial boycott of British goods
• Attacks on British officials Boston Tea Party,
  1773
• Political protest over representation in
  Parliament
• Continental Congress, 1774
• British troops, colonial militia skirmished at
  the village of Lexington, 1775
• The Declaration of Independence, 4 July 1776
• Declaration inspired by Enlightenment, Locke's
  theory of government
• The American Revolution, 1775-1781
• Building an independent state Constitutional
  Convention, 1787

6
FRENCH REVOLUTION NAPOLEON

• Summoning the Estates General
• Financial crisis King Louis XVI forced to summon
  Estates General to raise new taxes
• First and Second Estates (nobles, clergy) tried
  to limit Third Estate (commoners)
• National Assembly
• Formed by representatives of Third Estate, 17
  June 1789
• Demanded a written constitution and popular
  sovereignty
• Angry mob seized the Bastille on 14 July, sparked
  insurrections in many cities
• National Assembly wrote the "Declaration of the
  Rights of Man and the Citizen"
• The Assembly abolished the feudal system, altered
  the role of church
• France became a constitutional monarchy, 1791
• The Convention and the Reign of Terror
• Replaced National Assembly under new
  constitution, 1791
• Convention abolished the monarchy and proclaimed
  France a republic
• King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette
  executed, 1793
• Radical Jacobins dominated Convention in 1793-94
  in "reign of terror"
• During the Reign of Terror, at least 300,000
  suspects were arrested 17,000 were officially
  executed, and many died in prison or without
  trial.
• Revolutionary changes in religion, dress,
  calendar, women's rights
• The Directory, 1795-1799
• A conservative reaction against the excesses of
  the Convention

Despotismabsolute monarchs pursued legal,
social, and educational reforms
The code forbade privileges based on birth,
allowed freedom of religion, and specified that
government jobs should go to the most qualified.
7
THE POLITICAL SPECTRUM
8
HAITIAN REVOLUTION

• Saint-Domingue
• Rich French colony on western Hispaniola
• Society dominated by small white planter class
• 90 percent of population were slaves
• Horrendous working conditions
• Large communities of escaped slaves (maroons)
• Ideas of Enlightenment reached educated blacks
• Free blacks fought in American war
• Slave revolt began in 1791
• Factions of white settlers, gens de couleur,
  slaves battled each other
• French troops arrived in 1792 British, Spanish
  intervened in 1793
• Slaves conquer whole island including Spanish
  part
• Whites driven into exile, executed
• Toussaint Louverture (1744-1803)
• Son of slaves, literate, son of Enlightenment
• Skilled organizer, built strong, disciplined army
  
• Controlled most of Saint-Domingue by 1797
• Created a constitution in 1801
• Arrested by French troops died in jail, 1803

9
INDEPENDENCE IN LATIN AMERICA

• Mexican independence
• Napoleon's invasion of Spain in 1807 weakened
  royal control of colonies
• 1810 peasant revolt in Mexico led by Hidalgo,
  defeated by conservative creoles
• 1821 Mexico briefly a military dictatorship,
  then in 1822 a republic
• Simon Bolivar 1822
• Led independence movement in South America
• Inspired by George Washington, took arms against
  Spanish rule in 1811
• Bolivar's effort of creating the Gran Colombia
  failed in 1830s
• Jose de San Martin 1825
• Led independence movements in Bolivia, Argentina,
  Chile
• United efforts with Bolivar
• Brazilian independence
• Portuguese royal court fled to Rio de Janeiro,
  1807
• Brazil declared a separate kingdom during exile
• The king's son, Pedro, agreed to Brazilian
  independence, 1821
• Creole dominance in Latin America
• Independence brought little social change in
  Latin America
• Principal beneficiaries were creole elites
• Caribbean remained largely under European control

10
THE NEW AMERICAN MAP
11
LATIN AMERICA

• Old Problems confront new realities
• Leaders came from Enlightenment spoke of
  equality, freedom
• No allowance freedom of religion
• Slavery ended but not exploitation of poor,
  Indians
• Equality was too threatening to elite
• Democracy uncommon, rich men voted
• Old color distinctions did not disappear rapidly,
  easily, or at all
• Political instability after independence
• Creole leaders ruled but had little experience
  with self-government
• White minority dominated politics While fighting
  amongst selves
• Peasant majority was without power
• Conflicts between farmers, ranchers, indigenous
  peoples common
• Intense fighting in Argentina, Chile modern
  weapons against native peoples
• Colonists had pacified most productive land by
  1870s
• Caudillos, Caudillism, Politics and the Church
• Military leaders who held power after
  revolutionary era
• Used military to seize power, stay in control
  interested only in power for own sake
• Opposed liberalizing effects often made
  alliances with aristocratic elites, land owners
• Ruled through the church and opposed an
  secularization, reform of society

12
NATIONALISM

• Born in France (Joan of Arc), spread abroad
  during French Revolution
• Idea began as radical, adopted by liberals, used
  by conservatives
• An idea which could unify society across social
  classes
• Many aspects similar to religion, faith
• Loyalty to state often replaces loyalty to
  church, monarch
• Dominated 19th century
• Cultural nationalism
• An expression of national identity
• Emphasized common historical experience
• Used folk culture, literature, music
• Illustrated national spirit, distinctiveness
• Political nationalism more intense in the
  nineteenth century
• Demanded loyalty, solidarity from national group
• Minorities sought independence as national
  community
• Young Italy formed by Giuseppe Mazzini
• World-wide spread
• Contact with Europeans introduced others to idea
  of nationalism
• Nationalism often brought with it western ideas,
  structures
• Strongest in Middle East, India, Japan

13
EMERGENCE OF IDEOLOGIES

• Conservatism
• Called the Ancien Regime
• Resisted change, opposed revolutions
• Importance of continuity, tradition, aristocracy
• Edmund Burke
• Viewed society as organism that changed slowly
  over time
• American Revolution natural, logical outcome of
  history
• French Revolution violent and irresponsible
• Congress of Vienna was a Conservative restoration
• Restored Balance of Power ruled through great
  powers
• Monarchy was at heart of conservatism
• Liberalism
• Welcomed controlled change as an agent of
  progress
• Strongly middle class, support economic reform,
  education to help industrialization
• Wanted to reform political structure, increase
  electorate slightly
• Championed freedom, equality, democracy, written
  constitutions
• Limits on state power, interference in individual
  freedoms
• John Stuart Mill championed individual freedom
  and minority rights
• Radicalism

14
IMAGINED COMMUNITIES

• Concert of Europe 1815 - 1860
• Congress of Vienna, 1814-15
• Concert of European great powers called Holy
  Alliance
• UK, Russia, Prussia, Austria, France working in
  concert
• Attempted to prevent revolutions, change
• Intervened militarily to oppose change
• Often forced to limit, control changes
• Imagined Communities
• Groups begin to form based on a perceived sense
  of community
• Each group defined by agreed upon set of values,
  goals

15
THE SOCIALIST CHALLENGE

• Socialism
• Arose as an outgrowth of the Industrial
  Revolution
• Accelerated by the horrible conditions of the
  workers in the cities
• Utopian socialists
• Charles Fourier, Robert Owen, and their followers
  
• Established model communities based on principle
  of equality
• Stressed cooperative control of industry,
  education for all children
• Marxian Socialists (Communists)
• Marx (1818-1883), Engels (1820-1895), leading
  socialists
• Scorned the utopian socialists as unrealistic,
  unproductive
• Critique of industrial capitalism
• Unrestrained competition led to ruthless
  exploitation of working class
• State, courts, police all tools of the
  capitalist ruling class
• The Communist Manifesto, 1848
• Claimed excesses of capitalism would lead to a
  communist revolution
• Revolution would wipe away capitalism and
  establish a socialist society
• Dictatorship of the proletariat" would destroy
  capitalism
• Socialism would follow a fair, just, and
  egalitarian society
• Ideas dominated European, international socialism
  throughout 19th century

16
UNIFICATION OF ITALY, GERMANY

• Italy
• After Congress of Vienna
• Italy divided into small states all states
  except Sardinia, Papacy ruled by foreign
  dynasties
• Austria was the preeminent power in Italy
• Mazzini, Nationalist, formed Young Italy inspired
  uprisings against foreign rule
• 1848 Nationalist revolution destroyed by Austrian
  troops
• Sardinia and Cavour
• Italian Sardinia only ethnic Italian state
• Prime Minister of Sardinia becomes leader of
  nationalists
• Expelled Austrian authorities in northern Italy,
  1859 with French aide
• Garibaldi
• Revolutionary nationalist, democrat
• Staged revolutions, later seized control of
  Southern Italy
• 1860-1870 Italian states united under Sardinia
• Germany
• After Congress of Vienna Dominated by Austrian
  von Metternich
• German Confederacy a collection of independent
  states dominated by Austria
• Prussia the largest German state but limited in
  action by Austria
• Metternichs System preserved conservatism,
  persecuted liberalism, hated nationalism

17
MAPS OF UNIFICATION
18
THE UNITED STATES

• Jacksonian Democracy
• Expansion of electorate to include poorer,
  western Americans
• By 1820s all adult white men could vote and hold
  office
• Constant tension between states rights, federal
  powers
• Rapid westward expansion after the revolution
• 1803, US purchased France's Louisiana Territory
• By 1840s, coast-to-coast expansion was claimed as
  manifest destiny
• The Mexican-American War, 1845-1848
• Conflict with indigenous peoples followed
• 1830, Indian Removal Act forced eastern Indians
  to move west of Mississippi
• Thousands died on the "Trail of Tears" to
  Oklahoma
• Stiff resistance to expansion Battle of Little
  Big Horn, 1876, Sioux victory
• U.S. massacre at Wounded Knee, 1890, ended Indian
  Wars
• An Era of Compromise Avoided Conflict 1820-1854
• North had the population, dominated House of
  Representatives
• South wanted to preserve slavery but would lose a
  vote in House
• Missouri Compromise in 1820 admitted one slave,
  one free state
• South able to block abolition of slavery in
  Senate
• Sectional conflict

19
USA IN MAPS
20
CANADIAN DOMINION

• Independence came without war
• Autonomy and division characterized Canadian
  history
• Distance from England, isolation in north and
  interior led to self-government, autonomy
• Always a contest between English speaking, French
  speaking groups
• Immigrants and Amerindians dominated in the
  interior
• Eastern Canada (Quebec, Ontario, Maritime
  Provinces) dominate Canada
• French Quebec taken by Britain after the Seven
  Years' War
• Quebec Act was a large cause of war with American
  colonies
• British authorities made large concessions to
  French Canadians
• After 1781, many British loyalists fled United
  States to seek refuge in Canada
• The War of 1812 unified Canada against U.S.
  invaders
• Anti-U.S. sentiments due to US invasions,
  pillaging Would get revenge years later by
  sending U.S. Justin Bieber and 2014 Olympic
  Hockey
• Created sense of unity among French and British
  Canadians
• Dominion of Canada created in 1867
• Federal constitutional monarchy
• Government with a governor-general acting for
  British monarch
• Canadian Parliament and Provincial governments
  share rule
• Britain retained jurisdiction over foreign
  affairs until 1931
• Prime Minister John Macdonald strengthens
  Canadian independence

21
CANADA IN IMAGES
22

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23
EURASIAN SOCIETIES AT A CROSSROAD

• Threatened Societies
• SW Asia Ottoman Empire, Persia
• Eastern Europe Russia, Austria-Hungary
• East Asia China, Korea, and Japan
• Southeast Asia Vietnam, Thailand
• Common problems
• Military weakness, vulnerability to foreign
  threats
• Internal weakness especially from disaffected
  groups
• Economic problems, financial difficulties
• Corruption and unresponsive elites
• Issues of westernization vs. modernization
• Western interests often dominate government,
  economy
• Reform efforts
• Attempts at political and educational reform
• Attempts at industrialization
• Often turned to western models
• Different results of reforms
• Ottoman Empire, Austria, Russia, Iran, and China
• Reforms unsuccessful

24
EURASIA IN 1871
25
OTTOMAN DECLINE

• Military decline since the late seventeenth
  century
• Ottoman forces behind European armies in
  strategy, tactics, weaponry, training
• Janissary corps politically corrupt,
  undisciplined, unable to fight
• Provincial governors gained power, private armies
• Russia made war on Ottomans to divert domestic
  problems
• Austria, other European powers support local
  Christians independence
• Lost Caucasus and central Asia to Russia
• Western frontiers to Austria
• Balkan provinces to Greece and Serbia
• Egypt gained autonomy after Napoleon's failed
  campaign in 1798
• Egyptian general Muhammad Ali built a powerful,
  modern army
• Ali's army threatened Ottomans, made Egypt an
  autonomous province
• France annexes Muslim Algeria in 1830 and Tunisia
  in 1882
• The State
• Government was cumbersome, bureaucratized,
  medieval
• State was multinational and not all Muslim
• Power resided often with the provincial
  governors, elite
• Unwilling to adopt modern European methods or
  reform infrastructure
• Dominated by bureaucrats, landed elite unwilling
  to change

26
OTTOMAN REFORM, REORGANIZATION

• Attempt to reform military
• Led to violent Janissary revolt (1807-1808),
  suppression of Janissaries
• Reformer Mahmud II (1808-1839) became sultan
  after revolt
• Janissaries resisted, Mahmud had them killed
  reforms followed
• He built an European-style army, academies,
  schools, roads, and telegraph
• Legal, educational reforms
• Called Tanzimat ("reorganization") era
  (1839-1876)
• Ruling class sought sweeping restructuring to
  strengthen state
• Broad legal reforms, modeled after Napoleon's
  civic code
• State reform of education (1846), free and
  compulsory primary education (1869)
• Undermined authority of the ulama, enhanced the
  state authority
• Opposition to Tanzimat reforms
• Religious conservatives critical of attack on
  Islamic law and tradition
• Legal equality for minorities resented by some,
  even a few minority leaders
• Young Ottomans wanted more reform freedom,
  autonomy, decentralization
• High-level bureaucrats wanted more power, checks
  on the sultan's power
• Cycles of reform and repression
• 1876, coup staged by bureaucrats who demanded a
  constitutional government
• New sultan Abd al-Hamid II (1876-1909)

27
MUSLIM RESISTANCE

• Resistance
• Muslim universities
• Frequently organized education around western
  model
• Educated several generations of students
• Muslim Army Officers in Service of Europeans
• Often educated in western style universities,
  learned western ideas
• Become source of anti-Western activities even
  while supporting reform
• Revolt in the Sudan
• Egypt nominally ruled Sudan, attempted to enforce
  control
• Egypt able to control Nile farmers opposition
  comes from nomads, herders
• Rule greatly resented as it was corrupt,
  overtaxed peasants
• British pressure Egyptians to eradicate slavery,
  upsetting Muslims (Koran allows)
• Muhammad Achmad The Mahdi (1870s)
• Direct descendant of the Prophet Muhammad
  proclaims jihad against Egyptians, British
  masters
• Wahhabis Reformer A very puritanical form of
  Islam, seeks to purify Islam
• Purge Islam of problems reform, modernize but
  not at expense to Islam
• Overran all of Sudan, threatens Egypt, killed
  British commander at Khartoum
• Khalifa Abdallahi and the Mahdist state
• The Mahdi dies his successor builds an Islamic
  state under rule of Koran

28
QING (MANCHU) CHINA

• Qing China (1622 1911)
• Nomadic dynasty from Manchuria
• To rule, maintained strict separation of Chinese,
  Manchu
• Chinese not allowed to settle in Manchuria
• Manchurians not allowed to marry Chinese
• Retained much of Chinese political traditions,
  institutions
• Retained examination system
• Ruled through Confucian scholars
• Qing Army
• Manchurian nomadic army based on cavalry
• Unwilling to use modern weapons
• Rot from Within begins in 18th century
• Emperor isolated, ineffective
• Surrounded by eunuchs, advisors who kept him
  isolated
• Lived in Forbidden City at center of Beijing
• Extreme politics amongst bureaucrats, eunuchs,
  harem
• Bureaucracy
• Too large and cumbersome, corrupt and
  conservative
• Examination system riddled with favoritism,
  elitism, cheating

29
CHINA UNDER PRESSURE

• The Taiping rebellion
• Internal turmoil in China in the later nineteenth
  century
• Population grew by 50 percent land and food more
  slowly poverty strained resources
• Other problems official corruption, drug
  addiction
• Four major rebellions in 1850s and 1860s the
  most dangerous was the Taiping
• The Taiping ("Great Peace") program proposed by
  Hong Xiuquan
• Called for end of Qing dynasty resented Manchu
  rule
• Radical social change no private property,
  footbinding, concubinage
• Popular in southeast China seized Nanjing
  (1853), moved on Beijing
• Taiping defeat by combined Qing and foreign
  troops
• Gentry sided with government regional armies had
  European weapons
• Taipings defeated in 1864 the war claimed twenty
  to thirty million lives
• Reform frustrated
• The Self-Strengthening Movement (1860-1895)
• Blended Chinese cultural traditions with European
  industrial technology
• Built shipyards, railroads, weapon industries,
  steel foundries, academies
• Not enough industry to make a significant change
• Powerful empress dowager Cixi opposed changes
• The hundred-days reforms (1898)

30
JAPAN SHOGUN TO EMPEROR

• Crisis and reform in early nineteenth century
• Emperor isolated, secluded shogun military
  dictator
• Centralized bureaucracy alliances with feudal
  lords
• Japan not unaware of what was going on in wider
  world
• Dutch allowed to visit Japan at Nagasaki once a
  year
• Crisis
• Crop failure, high taxes on agriculture, rising
  rice prices
• All led to protests and rebellions
• Reforms and ideas conflict
• Government Neo-Confucian conservative reforms
• Dutch Learning Support western studies, reforms,
  working with west anti-Chinese
• National Studies praised Japanese traditions,
  emperor, Shinto led to ultranationalism
• Foreign pressure on Japan
• European wanted her to reverse long-standing
  closed door policy
• Europeans wanted to trade, wanted safe ports for
  whaling fleets
• 1844 requests by British, French, U.S. for the
  right of entry rebuffed
• 1853
• U.S. Commodore Perry sailed U.S. fleet to Tokyo
  Bay, demanded entry
• Japan forced to accept unequal treaties with
  U.S., other western countries

31
JAPAN MEIJI ERA

• Meiji government welcomed foreign expertise
• Fukuzawa Yukichi studied western constitutions
  and education
• Ito Hirobumi helped build Japanese constitutional
  government
• Social Revolution 1873 - 1876
• Abolition of the feudal order essential to new
  government
• Daimyo and samurai lost status, privileges class
  abolished
• Samurai issued bonds to pay for loss, but
  inflation led to impoverishment
• Samurai rebelled but the new national conscript
  army put rebellion down
• Some went into business, created western-style
  companies (Mitsubishi)
• Districts reorganized to break up old feudal
  domains
• Emperor created new nobility based on English
  style House of Peers
• Revamping tax system
• Converted grain taxes to a fixed money tax more
  reliable income for state
• Assessed taxes on potential productivity of
  arable land
• Constitutional government, the emperor's "gift"
  to the people in 1889
• Emperor remained supreme, limited the rights of
  the people
• Less than 5 percent of adult males could vote
• Legislature, the Diet, was an opportunity for
  debate and dissent but limited powers
• Remodeling the economy and infrastructure

32
AFRICA

• Africa 1750 1850
• North Africa nominally part of the Ottoman Empire
• Sudan, Sahel Africa had most powerful, developed
  states
• West Africa forest kingdoms part of the Atlantic
  slave trade
• East Africa dominated by native kingdoms, Swahili
  trading states
• South Africa population dispersal, state
  building of the Ngoni
• Few European possessions in Africa
• Atlantic (not Islamic) slave trade ended in early
  19th century
• Age of Exploration leads to Imperialism
• Europeans explore Africa, developed interest in
  Africa
• Permitted by technology
• Transportation, weaponry made it easy
• Medicines made it possible
• Africa was the center, objective of imperialism
• Africa was partitioned between Europeans
• Only Ethiopia and Liberia remained independent
• Infrastructures and Changes
• Political
• Colonial powers ignored indigenous peoples almost
  totally

33
MAPPING AFRICA, 1830
34
AFRICA 1914
35
RUSSIA EMPIRE UNDER PRESSURE

• Post-1812
• Great concern with defense, liberal ideas as
  threat to old order
• Government introduced reforms to improve
  bureaucracy
• Made an alliance with the conservative powers of
  Europe to maintain order
• December Uprising 1825
• Death of Alexander I prompted some
  western-oriented officers to rebel
• Suppressed mercilessly by new tsar
• Nicholas I
• Orthodoxy, autocracy and nationality
• State became very repressive, secret police
• Policeman of Europe used army to suppress
  revolutions
• Suppressed rebellion in Poland
• Policy of foreign wars to divert domestic
  problems
• Serfdom Issue
• Russia needed work force in order to industrial
• Serfdom not efficient
• Lack of workers in cities an obstacle to economic
  development
• Gap between western, eastern Europe economic
  systems

36
RUSSIAN REPRESSION MARXISM

• Cycles of protest and repression
• Peasants
• Often landless, no political power
• Frustrated by lack of meaningful reform
• Peasant uprisings become more common than serf as
  frustration heightened
• Population increased as potato introduced,
  increasing pressures on society
• Social Protest
• Antigovernment protest and revolutionary activity
  increased in 1870s
• Middle Class, some aristocrats advocated rights,
  political representation
• Radical Intelligentsia advocated socialism and
  anarchism, recruited in countryside
• Repression by tsarist authorities secret police,
  censorship
• Russification sparked ethnic nationalism,
  attacks on Jews tolerated
• Terrorism emerges as a tool of opposition
• Radicals wanted solution to social issue from a
  Russian perspective
• Young intellectuals went directly to the peasants
• Most opposed westernization, autocracy,
  capitalism
• Many became peasant anarchists
• Alexander II, the reforming tsar, assassinated by
  a bomb in 1881
• Nicholas II (1894-1917), more oppressive,
  conservative ruler

37
MARXISMWorkerswill stage arevolution and
overthrowcapitalism, stateLENINISMWill only
succeed withthe leadership of an elitegroup
ofrevolutionaries
38
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION OF 1905

• Russian Revolution of 1905
• Military defeat, humiliation in Russo-Japanese
  War was cause
• Russia always diverted domestic tension by short,
  successful wars
• In 1870s, 1880s had expanded against Ottoman
  Empire
• Massive protests followed news of defeat
• Workers mounted general strikes in St.
  Petersburg, Moscow
• Peasant insurrections in countryside against
  landlords
• Police repressions ineffective, just upset people
• Bloody Sunday massacre
• Poor workers of St. Petersburg march to palace to
  ask tsar for help
• Unarmed workers shot down by government troops
• Peasants seized landlords' property, killed
  landlords
• Workers formed soviets (worker councils) in
  cities, factories
• Workers tended towards non-Marxist socialists
  Marxists marginalized
• Sought to achieve ends without full scale
  revolution
• A Fizzled Revolution
• Tsar forced to accept elected legislature, the
  Duma
• Many parties elected with conflicting interests
• Unable, unwilling to cooperate

39
A MULTINATIONAL EMPIRE

• Austria 1750 1814
• A collection of states ruled by the Hapsburg
  family who were also the Holy Roman Emperors
• The Holy Roman Empire was neither holy, nor Roman
  nor an empire
• No common government, few common institutions
  (save Catholicism)
• Austria in 1815 1860
• One of the victors against Napoleon extremely
  conservative and reactionary
• The weakest, most threatened of Europes great
  powers
• Prime Minister Metternich dominated German
  Confederation, Italy
• Used force, coercion to prevent German, Italian
  nationalism
• Opposed nationalism, liberalism, democracy
• 1848 Revolution nearly destroyed state
• Russia intervened to suppress revolutions
• Austria then intervened in Germany, Italy to
  suppress revolutions
• Prussia fights to isolate Austria, unify Germany
  w/o Austria
• Austria in 1866 1870
• Defeated in 1858 by French-Sardinian Alliance
  1866 by Prussia
• Driven from German Confederation, Italy
• Sees nationalism, German unification triumph
  under rival Prussia
• Sees Italy united under Sardinia Papal states
  erased

40
MAP OF CONFUSION
41
NATIONALISM IMPERIALISM

• Nationalism heavily involved in imperialism
• Source of national pride, strength to acquire
  colonies
• Non-Westerners soon learned to be nationalist
• Many studied in Western schools, learned western
  knowledge to get ahead
• Many defined their sense of nation as response to
  imperialism
• India
• Two types of state-structures in India
• Princely States States ruled by Indian princes,
  assisted by British officials
• British possessions States ruled directly by
  British
• Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833), "father of modern
  India"
• Sought an Indian society based on European
  science and traditional Hinduism
• Used press to mobilize educated Hindus and
  advance reform
• The Indian National Congress, founded 1885
• Educated Indians met, with British approval, to
  discuss public affairs
• Congress aired grievances about colonial rule,
  sought Indian self-rule
• 1906, All-India Muslim League
• Formed to advance interests of Indian Muslims
• Limited reform, 1909
• Wealthy Indians could elect representatives to
  local councils

42
NATIONALIST RIVALRIES

• Nationalism spread by the French Revolution and
  Napoleonic Wars
• Self-determination each ethnic group had a right
  to a sovereign state
• Concept was ignored or opposed by dynastic powers
  
• Considerable nationalistic tensions in Ottoman,
  Hapsburg, and Russian empires
• Slavic nationalism in the Balkans
• Stressed kinship of all Slavic peoples
• Pan-Slavism was a movement to unite all Slavs
  under the Russian tsar
• Ottoman empire shrank as first Greece, then
  others, gained independence
• Serbs of Austria-Hungary sought unification with
  independent Serbia
• Russians promoted Pan-Slavism in
  Austria-Hungarian empire
• Germany backed Austria-Hungary to fight ethnic
  nationalism
• The naval race between Germany and Britain
  increased tensions
• Germany's rapid industrialization threatened
  British economic predominance
• Both states built huge iron battleships, called
  dreadnoughts
• Colonial disputes of the late nineteenth century
• Germany unified in 1871 came late to the
  colonial race
• German resentment and antagonism toward both
  France and Britain
• France and Germany nearly fought over Morocco in
  1905
• Balkan wars (1912-13) further strained European
  diplomatic relations

43
IRANIAN REVOLUTION OF 1905-1911

• Causes
• Intellectuals feel that to save Iran they would
  have to limit Shahs power
• Encroachment by Russians, British on Iranian
  territory upset Iranians
• Initiated by the Majilis or Iranian Parliament
• 1905 A year of demonstrations and strikes
• Parliamentarians tended to be educated,
  merchants, clerics, young
• Introduced the constitutional concept of
  government
• People were sovereign and their representatives
  were delegated to enact the laws
• Old Shah abdicates, new shah accepts
  constitutional limitations
• 1906
• Constitutionalists failed to protect victory
  against domestic, international threats
• Trade Russian influence for British control
• Took at face value Mohammed Ali Shah's pledges to
  respect constitution
• 1907-1908
• UK, Russia prepare to divide Iran into spheres
  of influence
• Mohammed Ali Shah used opportunity to overthrow
  constitution
• Shah attempts to kill constitutionalists, forced
  to abdicate, flees
• Spheres of influence
• Anglo-Russian convention signed on August 31,
  1907

44
MEXICAN REVOLUTION 1911- 1920

• The Revolution (1910-1920)
• Middle class joins peasants, workers overthrow
  Diaz
• Class Factions
• 1910-1914 all rebels vs. Diaz and Huerta
• 1914-20 Carranza, Obregon vs. Zapata, Villa
• Regional Revolutions North, South, Yucatan
• Course of the Revolution
• Liberal Middle Class Leaders
• Francisco Madero rules at first
• Seeks middle class constitutional democracy
• Opposes land reform landless peasants attack
  large landowners
• Peasant armies win pitched battles against
  government troops
• General Huerta, army side with landowners, kills
  Madero
• Venustiano Carranza
• Organizes coalition with Villa, Zapata, Obregon
• US troops sent by Wilson support Carranza, Huerta
  resigns
• Peasant, Common Rebels
• Pancho Villa led northern rebels, especially
  landless peasants
• Emiliano Zapata initiates land reform in the
  Southern areas he controls

45
CHINESE REVOLUTION

• Reform Fails
• Chinese elites unwilling, unable to reform
• Boxer Rebellion shows weakness of state,
  humiliating to Chinese
• Chinese leaders
• Leaders educated abroad, especially Japan, US
• Sun Yat-sen
• Founds United League in Tokyo using Chinese
  foreign funds
• Wins support of many military officers, foreign
  exiles
• Suns Three Principles of the People
• Nationalism Overthrow Manchus, end foreign
  hegemony
• Democracy Popularly elected republican form of
  government
• People's Livelihood help people, regulate means
  of production, land
• 1911 Revolution broke out in Hubei
• Local army rebellion followed by many armies
• Joined by United League members
• 2/3 of provinces join rebels
• 1912
• Last Emperor abdicates
• Sun Yat-sen inaugurated as first president