Introduction to Shipping

1
Introduction to Shipping

• Lecture 10
• Environmental Sustainability of Shipping

2
Shippings Main Environmental Footprints

• Ballast water
• Oil spills
• Marine wastes (operational discharges)
• Garbage (including cargo residues)
• Sewage (black grey water)
• Oily residues from engine room (bilge water
  sludge)
• Air emissions
• SOx, NOx, PMs
• CO2

3
Main Environmental Footprint
4
Regulatory Regime

• International Regime
• MARPOL 73/78 (umbrella convention)
• Six Annexes addressing different sources of
  operational pollution can be ratified
  individually
• Annex I - Oil
• Annex II Liquid Noxious Substances
• Annex III Packaged Cargo
• Annex IV Sewage
• Annex V Garbage
• Annex VI Air pollution
• Subject-specific conventions
• on ballast water, oil spill preparedness and
  response, etc.

5
Regulatory Regime
Source Uson Marines website
6
Regulatory Regime

• Canadian Regime
• Vessel Pollution Dangerous Chemical Regulations
  
• Adopted under the Canada Shipping Act
• Address discharges from ships (Part 2)
• Oil (Division 1)
• Noxious liquid substances dangerous chemicals
  (Division 2)
• Marine pollutants (Division 3)
• Sewage (Division 4)
• Garbage (Division 5) (including cargo residues)
• Air (Division 6)
• Greywater (Division 9)

7
Management of Ballast Water
8
Ballast Water

• 1. What is the issue?
• BW is water carried by ships to ensure stability,
  trim and structural integrity
• Essential for un-laden ships, loading/unloading
  operations
• Shipping transfers between 3 to 5 billion tonnes
  of BW internationally each year (IMO data)
• Excluding BW volume transferred domestically

9
Ballast Water
Source Globallast Partnerships (IMO)
10
Ballast Water

• Discharge of BW sediments can lead to transfer
  of organisms from one marine ecosystem into
  another
• Organisms small enough to pass through the ships
  BW pumps
• Bacteria , other microbes, small invertebrates
  and eggs, cysts, larvae, etc
• Over 7000 different species can potentially be
  carried in ships BW tanks (IMO data)
• Vast majority wont survive the journey
• BUT, when factors are favorable, damages to host
  ecosystems are significant (ecologically
  economically)

11
Ballast Water

• European Zebra Mussel believed to have been
  introduced in Great Lakes through BW
• Impacts
• Believed to be responsible for extinction of many
  native species in the GL
• Threat to human health Zebra mussels take in
  hazardous compounds such as PCBs and enter our
  food chain through fish and waterfowl that eat
  the mussels
• Block pipelines, clogging water intakes of
  municipal water supplies and hydro companies ,
  etc
• Estimated costs
• Over 5 billion for industries, businesses and
  communities

12
Ballast Water

• International Regime
• In 1991, IMO adopted first set of Guidelines for
  the control and management of ships ballast
  water
• Promoted mid-ocean ballast exchange (subject to
  safety of ship/crew)
• In 2004, IMO adopted the Ballast Water
  Management Convention requires
• BW exchange (temporary options)
• Limits safety concerns, salinity tolerance,
  sediments, etc
• Onboard BW treatment to be phased in would be
  required for all vessels by 2016 and
• Ship-specific BW management plan, record book and
  international BW management certificate

13
Ballast Water
14
Ballast Water

• International Regime - Challenges
• Availability of BW treatment technology and
  feasibility of retrofitting vessels
• In 2004, expectations were that BW treatment
  technology would be ready by 2009 not the case
• In summer 2013, only a limited number of vessels
  had been fitted with onboard BW treatment
  technologies In fall 2013, IMO adopted a
  resolution to delay implementation
• Period of retrofitting for the world fleet will
  now be between 2017-2021 (instead of the original
  timeframe of 2016-2019)
• Types of BW treatment technologies
• Chemical treatment, heating, filtration,
  ultraviolet light, chlorination, etc.
• There are about 40 BW treatment system approved
  to date

15
Ballast Water

• International Regime - Challenges
• Convention not yet in force
• Although number of ratifications required (30)
  has been exceeded (36), necessary percentage of
  the world fleet (35) has yet to be reached
• US has not yet ratified the Convention
• Issues with states developing their own
  local/regional requirements

16
Ballast Water

• Canadian Context
• In 1989, Canadian guidelines for voluntary BW
  exchange for vessels entering the Great Lakes
• Precursor to the IMO guidelines
• Expanded in 2000 to apply nationally
• Legal requirements ( 2006 and 2011)
• Ocean going vessels entering Canadian waters
  must
• Conduct mandatory mid-ocean BW exchange and/or
• Treat BW to IMO standards and/or
• Retain BW onboard
• Inspection salinity (30 ppm) of BW measured with
  a refractometer
• Ballast Water Control and Management
  Regulations (under the CSA 2001)

17
Ballast Water

• Canadian Context
• Exclusion for coastal navigation
• Not applicable if ships operate solely between
  certain ports on the west coast and east coast
• Eg Vessels trading between ports North of Cape
  Cod up to Newfoundland
• Canadian fleet (including lakers in the Great
  Lakes)
• Canada ratified BW Convention in 2010
• Ongoing review of Canadian regulations
• One scenario extending requirement to domestic
  fleet

18
Oil Spills
19
Oil Spills

• Two main sources of oil spills (accidental)
• Vessels using oil /bunker as fuel for
  transportation
• Tankers carrying oil as cargo
• Operational discharges of oily waste will be
  addressed later

20
Oil Spills
Oil spills from tankers have decreased
significantly, while oil trade has increased
Source Intertanko, Jeddah, 31 May 2010
21
Oil Spills

• International Regime
• International Convention for the Prevention of
  Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78) Annex 1
• Phasing out of single-hull tankers
• Requirements for vessels to carry a shipboard oil
  pollution plan, etc
• International Convention on Oil Pollution
  Preparedness, Response and Cooperation (OPRC 90)
• Countries that have ratified the Convention must
  establish measures to deal with oil pollution in
  their waters, either nationally or regionally
• Ships required to carry a shipboard oil pollution
  emergency plan report any oil spill incidents
  to coastal authorities
• Requirements for stockpiling adequate equipment
  for combating oil spills, holding exercises and
  training, etc.

22
Oil Spills

• International Regime
• Civil Liability Conventions (CLC) Ensure
  adequate compensation to cover oil pollution
  damage resulting from maritime casualties
  involving oil
• CLC for Oil Pollution imposes strict (no fault)
  liability on shipowner for pollution damage from
  tankers however, NOT absolute liability i.e.
  Convention and its Protocol set financial
  liability for any one incident (unless shipowner
  is at fault) - shipowners must have
  insurance/security to demonstrate ability to meet
  financial liability (1992 CLC Certificate)
• International Oil Pollution Compensation Fund
  complements CLC Convention Protocol by
  establishing international fund with additional
  compensation for victims of pollution damage when
  CLC compensation is inadequate or unobtainable
  burden is shared between shipowners and cargo
  interests
• CLC for Bunker Oil Pollution Damage addresses
  liability for pollution damages resulting from
  bunkers of ships other than tankers provides for
  compulsory insurance
• This civil liability regime implemented in Canada
  through Marine Liability Act

23
Oil Spills

• Canadian Regime - Ships source oil pollution
  prevention, preparedness and response regime
• Regulatory agencies
• Transport Canada (TC), Canadian Coast Guard and
  Environment Canada
• Since 2010 only double hulled foreign flagged
  tankers calling in Canadian waters
• All non-Canadian flag tankers inspected by TC
  Marine Safety on their first call to Canada in
  each calendar year
• Ensure that tankers operate at norms

24
Oil Spills

• Canadian Regime
• Oil Spill response organizations (ROs) certified
  by TC under the Canada Shipping Act to respond
  to oil spills
• Regional framework 4 ROs to cover Canadian
  waters
• All ships in waters under Canadian jurisdiction
  (South of 60N) must have
• An oil pollution emergency plan on board and
• A contract with a TC certified oil spill RO that
  can respond to an oil spill anywhere the ship
  will travel in Canada
• Ships pay an annual fee to ROs to maintain the
  level of preparedness to respond to a spill
  (private services as opposed to governmental
  services)

25
Oil Spills
26
Oil Spills

• Ongoing review of Canada's Marine Oil Spill
  Preparedness and Response Regime Designed to
• Review structure/effectiveness of the response
  regime (public/private partnership)
• Assess adequacy of liability and compensation
  regime
• Review tanker safety issues
• Assess needs in Arctic waters (North of 60N)
• Assess how to address increased risks of chemical
  spills in Canadian waters (including LNG)
• Timeframe First report due Nov 2013 (existing
  regime), second report due Sept. 2014 (Arctic
  HNS/LNG response regime)
• Review panel has heard from 100 stakehlders so
  far (see TC website)

27
Marine Waste
28
Garbage

• Environmental footprint of ships garbage
  (estimates)
• 70 immediately sinks to bottom of ocean
• 15 washed up on the shore
• 15 floats on or just under oceans
  surface(garbage islands)
• How long for an object to dissolve at sea?
• Painted wood13 yrs
• Tin can100 yrs
• Aluminum cans 200-500 yrs
• Plastic bottles 450 yrs
• Source Hellenic Marine Environment Protection
  Association

29
Garbage

• Obligations on vessels
• MARPOL 73/78 - Annex V (revised in Jan 2013)
• Garbage
• Food waste, cargo residues, cleaning agents,
  plastic domestic oil, incinerator ashes, etc
• Total prohibition on disposal of plastic
• Total prohibition of discharge of waste in
  special areas
• See map (next slide)
• Restrictions on discharge of garbage (other than
  plastic)
• in coastal waters

30
Garbage
31
Garbage

• Cargo residues
• Residual cargo that remains on board (in bilges,
  pipes or cargo tanks) after unloading
• These residues end up in the washing waters that
  are used to clean cargo holds before their next
  loading
• Now considered as garbage under revised Annex V
  of MARPOL 73/73

32
Garbage

• Cargo residues and cargo hold washing waters that
  are not harmful to the marine environment (HME)
  can be discharged under certain conditions
• Outside of special areas if at least 12 nautical
  miles from nearest land AND while ship is en
  route
• Within special areas applies ONLY to washing
  water, ship must be in transit between ports
  without adequate reception facilities, ship must
  be12 nm from shore and en route
• Cargo residues (sweepings) must be bagged
  discharged ashore

33
Garbage

• Responsibility of shipper to classify cargo
  residues
• as HME (or not)
• Harmonized classification by Jan 2015
• But in the mean time, challenges from shipowners
  and shippers
• Discharge recorded in the ships garbage record
• book

34
Garbage

• Transitional regime for cargo residues that are
  Harmful to the Marine Environment (HME)
• Until Dec. 31, 2015, can be discharged IF
• NO adequate reception facilities at receiving
  terminal or next port call (as per info from port
  authorities) and
• Discharge is done outside of Special Areas AND as
  far as practical from nearest land, but no less
  than 12nm
• Amount is minimized (i.e., solid bulk cargo
  residues swept, bagged and discharged ashore,
  etc) and discharge recorded in ships garbage
  record book

35
Garbage

• What happens if cargoes residues washing waters
  cannot be discharged?
• Must be discharged ashore prior to leaving berth
  or be stored in a ships tank during passage
• Economic costs (time at berth at port, shore
  disposal costs and/or loading less cargo)
• Recommended procedures for shipowners to
  navigate these new requirements
• Liaise with charterers, shippers and ports of
  discharge to determine whether cargo is
  classified as HME prior to loading and, if it is,
  to ensure suitable reception facilities are
  available
• Ensure that charterparty will state who pays for
  these additional costs and who will be liable (if
  cargo residue not appropriately disposed of)

36
Garbage
37
Garbage

• Garbage management on board vessels
• Incinerators (for paper, packaging material, food
  waste, glass, etc)
• Incinerator ashes discharged ashore or in
  accordance with Annex V
• Grinder (for food), compacters (for cans),
  crushers (for glass)
• To minimize volume

• BMPs to reduce wastes at the source and promote
  discharge ashore (including recycling)

38
Garbage

• Canadian Context
• Transport Canada has not yet updated its
  legislation to
• reflect the revised Annex V of MARPOL 73/78
• In the meantime, existing Canadian requirements
  found in
• Division 5 of the Vessel Pollution and
  Dangerous
• Chemical Regulations
• General prohibition on disposal of garbage in
  internal waters, fishing zones and arctic waters
• Some exceptions - including (s. 101)
• Garbage, when vessels more than 12nm from nearest
  land (except plastic and dunnage)
• Garbage that has gone through a comminuter or
  grinder, so long as the vessel is more than 3nm
  from shore
• Cargo residues under certain conditions (sections
  101 and 102)

39
Garbage

• Shore reception facilities
• MARPOL 73/78 - Annex V
• State party to Annex V MARPOL shall ensure that
  ports under their jurisdiction provide adequate
  reception facilities to ships
• What does adequate mean?
• Not causing undue delay to ships and meeting
  their needs
• 24/24hrs 7/7 days?
• Economically accessible?
• Currently, waste reception facilities NOT
  available at
• all ports

40
Sewage

• Definitions
• Black Water Wastewater containing faecal matter
  and urine as well as medical facility waters
• Grey water Water generated from domestic
  activities such as dishwashing, laundry and
  bathing
• Issues
• Discharge of raw sewage in ocean and coastal
  sheltered water can create health hazards and
  damage to receiving ecosystems (eutrophication,
  visual pollution, etc)

41
Sewage

• International Regime
• Annex IV of MARPOL 73/78 (Sewage)
• Only regulates black water does not apply to
  gray water
• Prohibits discharge of sewage (black water) into
  sea
• Unless ship has an approved sewage treatment
  plant in operation or
• The ship has an approved sewage comminuting and
  disinfecting system AND ship is 3 nm from nearest
  land
• Sewage not comminuted and desinfected must be
  kept in holding tanks and discharged 12nm from
  the nearest land

42
Sewage

• Canadian Regime
• Canada has not ratified Annex IV
• Legislative framework under division 4 of the
  Vessel Pollution and Dangerous Chemical
  Regulations
• Blackwater
• Ships must have approved marine sanitation system
  (or toilet with holding tanks)
• Prohibition against discharging untreated sewage
  in Canadian inland waters and coastal waters
  within 12nm
• Specific requirements for discharge of treated
  sewage (limits on faecal coliforms)
• Greywater
• Must ensure that release does not result in
  deposits of solids or leave a sheen on the water
  (subsection 4)
• Specific requirements for passenger vessels
  (subsection 5)

43
Oily Residues from Engine Room

• Oily residues are a normal by-product of a ships
  operations and can be generated by
• Treating bunkers (which ships use as fuel)
• Bilge water that is produced from cleaning a
  ships machinery spaces
• This water is often contaminated with fuel oils
  and lubricating oils and accumulates in bilges
  (residual collection tanks) of the engine room

44
Oily Residues from Engine Room

• International Regime
• Annex 1 MARPOL 73/78
• Prohibits discharge at sea of oily mixtures
  except under certain conditions
• Ship is not in a special area (see notes)
• Ship has an approved oily water separator onboard
• Ship is en route AND bilge water that is
  discharged (after being processed through the
  oily water separator) results in an effluent that
  has an oil content less than 15 parts per million
  (ppm)
• Alternatively, retain in holding tanks until
  discharged at shore
• Lack of proper reception facilities despite
  obligation imposed on port states..

45
Oily Residues from Engine Room

• Canadian regime
• Division 1 of the Vessel Pollution and Dangerous
• Chemical Regulations incorporates requirements
  of
• Annex 1 MARPOL
• However, it provides for stricter requirements
  for
• discharges in Canadian inland waters
• Limited to a 5 ppm limit oily content - as
  opposed to the 15 ppm (under MARPOL)
• Ships must be equipped with a 5ppm bilge alarm
  system
• Zero discharge in Arctic waters

46
Oily Residues from Engine Room

• Primary objective should be to reduce oily water
  residues through operational procedures
• Shipping Federations Code of Best Practices for
  Managing Oily Water Waste in Ships Engine Rooms
• Minimize amount of water, condensation, oil,
  lubricants, gray water etc., collecting in the
  engine -room bilges through rigorous maintenance
  of machinery and proper use of receptacles and
  drip pans
• Clean bilges regularly and remove any solid
  material that may reduce the performance of the
  oily water separator (OWS) etc

47
Oily Residues from Engine Room

• Illegal operational discharge of oily water off
  Canadian coasts
• Chronic pollution? Not unique to Canada
• According to some estimates, 300,000 birds killed
  off of Newfoundland's coast every year
• Independently of debates on accuracy of above
  figures, Canadian measures to prevent these
  illegal discharges include
• Aircraft surveillance
• Increased enforcement and higher fines
• Legislative amendments to Migratory Birds
  Convention Act, 1994 and Canadian Environmental
  Protection Act (1999)
• Some issues with the legislative means but
  several ship-owners support the objectives

48
Marine Waste - Overview
49
Marine Waste - Overview
50
Air Emissions From Ships
51
SOx and NOx Emissions

• What is the main issue
• Combustion of ships fuel (marine bunkers)
  produces
• Sulphur Oxides (Sox)
• Nitrogen Oxide (Nox)
• Particles (fine dust) called particulate matter
  (PM)
• These gases and particles are harmful to human
  health (air quality problems), the oceans and the
  atmosphere (acidification, etc.)

52
SOx and NOx Emissions

• SOx emissions can be reduced by decreasing the
  sulphur content in the fuel supplied to the
  vessel this will also lead to lower PM emissions
• Use of fuel with low sulphur content
• Move from heavy oil to distillate/diesel oil
  which contains less sulphur or
• Technological improvements (green technologies)
• EG Use of scrubbers to reduce SOX from exhaust
  certain studies show this can reduce Sox up to
  85
• NOx emissions can be reduced by improving engine
  (diesel engine) efficiency

53
SOx and NOx Emissions

• International Regime
• Annex VI MARPOL 73/78
• Imposes limits on emissions of Sox PMs from
  ships
• Global SOx cap
• Current 3.5 (reduced from 4.5 as of Jan 2012)
• By 2020 progressively reduced to 0.5, subject
  to feasibility
• Stricter in Emission Control Areas (ECAs)
• Current 1
• Jan 2015 will be further reduced to 0.1
• ECAs North America is an ECAs

54
SOx and NOx emissions

• Challenges linked to increased SOx limits
• Availability of low sulphur fuel
• Increased demand for distillate demand
  availability on the market? Extra costs
• Fuel costs already represent 50 of operating
  costs
• Alternatives
• Use of Scrubbers
• Challenges costs (up to 2 million in some
  cases),
• will there be enough space on board, crew
  training, etc
• Use of Liquid Natural Gas as fuel

55
SOx and NOx Emissions

• International Regime
• Annex VI MARPOL 73/78
• Imposes limits on emissions of NOx
• Optimize fuel combustion to reduce NOX emissions
• Limits apply to new vessels only i.e., built
  after 2000
• Limits in term of grams of NOx per KWT / depends
  on the engines maximum operating speed (rpm)
• Global limits for Tier I and II levels
• Stricter limits in ECAs that cover NOx ( Tier III
  level)

56
SOx and NOx Emissions

NOx emission limits under MARPOL Annex VI
Tier Ship Construction date on or after Engine Speed N engine rated speed Engine Speed N engine rated speed Engine Speed N engine rated speed
Tier Ship Construction date on or after nlt130 rpm n130-1999rpm Ngt2000 rpm
I 1 January 2000 17.0 grams/KWh 45 x n-0.2 g/Kwh 9.8 g/KWh
II 1 January 2011 14.4 grams/KWh 44 x n-0.23 g/Kwh 7.7 g/KWh
III 1 January 2016 3.4 grams/KWh 9 x n-0.2 g/Kwh 2.0 g/KWh
Source IMO website
57
SOx and NOx Emissions

• Existing emission control areas

Area Pollutant controlled Adopted Entered into force
Baltic Sea SOx 1997 2005
North Sea SOx 2005 2006
North America Sox, Nox, PMs 2010 2012
US Carribean Sox, Nox, PMs 2011 2014
North America ECA include most of Canada and US
costs
58
SOx and NOx emissions

• ECA in North America

59
SOx and NOx Emissions

• Canadian Approach
• Differentiation between foreign flag (ocean
  going) and domestic (Canadian) vessels
• Foreign flag vessels
• ECA limits to also apply when vessels transiting
  in Great Lakes St. Lawrence River
• Domestic vessels
• Applied on a fleet averaging basis for vessels
  trading solely in the GL St. Lawrence River
• Note At this stage, US does not intend to apply
  ECA limits to US lakers (although applied to the
  rest of their internal waters)

60
SOx and NOx Emissions
Possible future ECAs
61
CO2 Emissions

• CO2 is the main greenhouse gas
• Combustion of marine bunkers produces CO2
• Increase of CO2 emissions contributing factor to
  global warming

62
CO2 Emissions
Comparison by sectors
Source Global emissions of CO2 in 2007 (Second
IMO GHG Study 2009)
63
CO2 Emissions
Ships, the most energy efficient on a tonne-km
basis
Source Shipping, World Trade and the Reduction
of CO2 emissions, International Chamber of
Shipping,
64
CO2 Emissions

• International shipping accounts for between 2.7
  to 4 of global CO2 emissions while transporting
  90 of international trade
• Nevertheless, this percentage may increase by as
  much as 200-300 percent by 2050 (from 2007 level)
  due to expected growth in international trade
• Demand is the primary driver BUT would not fit
  with global objective to reduce CO2 emissions
• How do we ensure sustainability of marine
  transportation?

65
CO2 Emissions
IMO has identified significant potential for
reduction of GHGs / CO2 emissions through
technical operational measures Could reduce
emissions rate by 25 to 75 below current levels
66
CO2 Emissions

• International Regime
• MARPOL Annex VI (Chapter 4)
• Entered into force on January 1, 2013
• 2 mandatory mechanisms intended to ensure energy
  efficiency standard for ships
• Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI)
• Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan (SEEMP)

67
CO2 Emissions

• Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI) applies
  to new ships
• This a performance-based mechanism requiring
  specified level of energy efficiency in new
  ships (technical measures)
• The EEDI index is based on a continuous
  improvement approach , i.e., increased
  requirements over time
• Set in terms of maximum (Grams of CO2 per
  tonne-nautical mile (g/tnm)

68
CO2 Emissions

• Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan (SSEMP)
  applies to all ships
• A mechanism for operators to improve the energy
  efficiency of their ships
• Mostly translates into operational measures to
  reduce fuel consumption
• Several approaches slow speed, voyage
  optimization (reduced port time, best route
  forecasting), optimization of engine hull
  maintenance, etc.
• Involves monitoring energy efficiency performance
  and reviewing potential for improvement at
  regular intervals (new technologies, practices)

69
Other Environmental Issues

• Ship recycling
• Shoreline rrosion caused by the wake of the ship
  in narrow passages
• Eg St. Lawrence
• Impacts on marine mammals
• Noise (in port)
• Dust (loading discharge operations), etc